Ethnozoological Annotations on Wild Mammals from the Gulf of Morrosquillo, Sucre, Caribbean, Colombia

Objective : An ethnozoological evaluation was carried out on the wild mammals to establish the regional link between the fauna and human populations. Methods/Statistical Analysis : The study area was located in the Morrosquillo sub-region of Sucre, Caribbean, Colombia, and was carried out between November, 2017 and March, 2018. The information on exploitation and other considerations, along with the analysis of the obtained data, was gathered with the application of 100 semi-structured surveys, with p = 0.05, alpha 99% and d = 5%. For the determination of the species of wild mammals, an illustrated catalog was developed, which sought to facilitate the identification of the collected species. For the analyzes, descriptive statistics were used and the following were calculated: Cultural Importance Index and Total Cultural Importance Index. Findings : 22 species in 13 ethnozoological categories were identified, of which the most significant in terms of number of associated mammals were trade, pet and consumption species; in addition, the cultural importance for Sylvilagus floridanus and Notosciurus granatensis was noteworthy; the latter had the largest number of linked ethnozoological categories. Application : From the conservationist point of view, knowledge on a given area in terms of the human-wildlife relationship is very important, especially when taking into account perceptions that come from culture, economy, history, society and individual thought, which are also related to the biological characteristics of harvested species or other considerations.


Introduction
Traditionally, in Latin America, the use of faunal resources by communities is linked to the selective use of species, such as food, scientific, commercial, pet and ornamental, ecological, educational, ethical, medicinal, political, traditional, religious, and recreational, among others [1][2][3][4] .This use has played a transcendental role in the sociocultural aspects of human populations 5,6 , relying on various social, economic, cultural and environmental factors 7 .It is also important to point out that different human groups, especially those located in rural or jungle areas, possess valuable knowledge on the diversity of their natural resources and uses specific to the animal species 1 ; the collection of this knowledge is valuable, serving as a primordial tool in conservation processes 7 .
Studies on culture and fauna diversity are very important 6,8 .However, in Colombia, ethnozoological research has not been fully integrated 1 , even though Colombian human societies have placed significant importance on fauna, which has been directly involved in their development 9 .
These contributions have been notable in the departments Caldas 10 , Chocó 11 , Cundinamarca 12 , Orinoquia and Amazonia [13][14][15] , Quindío 16 , Risaralda 17 and Valle del Cauca 18 .Studies have provided data on relationships and the importance of wildlife for some communities in Colombia and for the possible implications of traditional knowledge in aspects related to conservation of natural resources that contribute to their livelihoods 1 .
However, Colombian research on this subject for mammals is sporadic, providing few details on related aspects 19,20 , which is unfortunate because they form one of the most conspicuous groups of terrestrial vertebrate communities 21 ; in addition, they form part of the environmental, social and cultural aspects of communities; roles that are not understood because characteristics such as size, behavior and conspicuity are not known 16 .Different studies have shown that there is a general preference for wild mammals as a group 22 .
In the Department of Sucre, Caribbean region of Colombia, the ethnozoological perspective has focused with great emphasis on patterns of use, importance and use of wildlife by the inhabitants of the geographical subregions Montes de María, Mojana and San Jorge 4,[22][23][24][25][26][27] , but there is little information related to the ethnozoology of wild mammals in the area 28,29 .
In this research, an evaluation was carried out on the uses and considerations of mammals in the Morrosquillo sub-region of Sucre, Colombia to identify valued species using ethnozoological categories while determining the mammal species with the greatest cultural importance at the local and sub-regional levels.Finally, the cases of ethnozoological exploitation were described according to the study locations.

Study Area
This research was carried out in the Gulf of Morrosquillo sub-region in the north of the Department of Sucre, Colombia (9°35'00 "N and 75°40'00" W), which covers an approximate area of 1,886 km2.Phytoclimatically classified as a tropical dry forest 30 , part of the Caribbean.

Description of Categories
Aphrodisiac: consumption to increase sexual desire.Amulet: attributed to animal magical power, protection or luck.Artisanal: for handmade manufacture of various objects; Commercial: can be bought or sold; Consumption: food; Pet: pet animals; Medicinal: use of parts as medicine; Ornamental: used as an ornament or decoration; Conflict: animal whose behavior can affect humans; Protection: used to care for residential or production areas; Taxidermy: conservation of stuffed animals; Taboo: Prohibition or prejudices of a social nature respecting the animal; Breeding: captive breeding of wild animals.

Fieldwork
The fieldwork was developed from November, 2017 to March, 2018.In each of the five municipalities that make up the Gulf of Morrosquillo sub-region: Coveñas, San Antonio de Palmito, San Onofre, Santiago de Tolú and Toluviejo, information related to the ethnozoological aspects was sought 31 .Subsequently, to start sampling, the first person was selected at random and the Snowball criterion was applied, with the purpose of using as many references as possible 6 .Semi-structured surveys were applied as the main instrument for obtaining the required information 32 , with special designs and modifications for the study type [33][34][35] .
Parallel to the survey application, an illustrated catalog of species of the regional wild mammals was created, which was based on a bibliographic search, to aid in the identification of the harvested species 22,25,27 .The taxonomic classification was based on related studies 36,37 .
For the calculation of the representative sample for finite populations 38 , a sample of 500 persons of a legal age, previously identified as potential users of the wild fauna resource, was taken into account, with p = 0.05, alpha 99% and d = 5%, which resulted in a total of 100 surveys that were applied randomly.With the permission of the subjects, it was decided to document the ethnozoological exploitation with photographic evidence in order to be certain of the assessment.

Data Analysis
Percentage calculations were carried out and the Cultural Importance Index (IIC) was used 16 in order to estimate the cultural value of the species, which was calculated with the equation IIC = (Iu + Nr)/Neu, where Iu was the intensity of use per species (number of uses), Nr the number of reports, and Neu the number of useful species.This index goes from 0 to 1, with 1 being a highly used species.
22 species with ethnozoological value were registered, in agreement with the 13 proposed ethnozoological categories.The ethnozoological categories to which more mammals were added were commercial or pets (12 species) and consumption (11 species) (Table 2).Likewise, the data for the species used ethnozoologically with the Index of Cultural Importance -IIC, are presented in Table 2. Sylvilagus floridanus (Eastern Cottontail) was the most important species, followed by Notosciurus granatensis (Red-tailed Squirrel).
Aphrodisiac powers are conferred to the flesh of Didelphis marsupialis.Sporadic consumption data of Coendou prehensilis and Notosciurus granatensis were recorded, being a viable option in times of food scarcity.For meat consumption, the desired species included: Odocoileus cariacou, Dasypus novemcinctus, Silvilagus floridanus, Hydrochoerus isthmius, Cuniculus paca, Pecari tajacu and Dasyprocta punctata.Primate neonates and juveniles are commercialized as pets, including: Aotus lemurinus, Alouatta seniculus, Saguinus oedipus and Cebus capucinus.There is sporadic consumption of A. seniculus meat, which does not taste very pleasant unless it is properly seasoned.
Amulets for good luck and protection arise from cultural perceptions of the power of nature and wildlife; some body parts of certain species can be used for that purpose.D. novemcinctus tails are kept by hunters for luck in subsequent hunts of the same species although others display them in their homes as an object of ornamentation.For S. floridanus, the legs and ears are preserved by hunters and non-hunters for good luck; live individuals of A. seniculus are kept in captivity as a means of protection from evil or witchcraft.
Some mammals are considered charismatic and, therefore, can sometimes be used as pets, captured and maintained, sometimes without age distinction, including the above-species and S. floridanus, Bradypus variegatus, Choloepus hoffmanni and N. granatensis.
Desmodus rotundus and D. punctata are the two species used for medicinal purposes; the first is used to treat asthma with a broth made from its meat; while the latter is used to avoid pregnancy by consuming a brew composed exclusively of the bile of the animal; however, this species is also used as a pet.
Cerdocyon thous is considered an animal that protects people from other animals; however, it is viewed as dangerous, leading to the capture of pups to be raised as pets.
The carnivores Leopardus pardalis, Puma concolor and Procyon cancrivorus are seen as problematic and hunted as a control measure; in some cases, the hide was removed for exhibition and/or sale locally.L. pardalis is also used as a pet.
The "problem species" include D. rotundus, D. marsupialis and N. granatensis; the first transmits rabies to cattle, the second consumes poultry, and the third tends to damage crops, especially corn; so control is carried out by hunting.Additionally, N. granatensis hides are used for ornamental purposes and for the manufacture of key rings with the tail, which is considered an amulet.
Taxidermy, usually considered, incorrectly, locally as embalming, is based on a traditional technique of extracting organs and bones, drying skin and later filling it with items such as bags and pieces of cloth or cotton; this use was observed for S. floridanus and N. granatensis.
Three species were recorded for the breeding category, with rudimentary and artisanal methods: D. punctata, H. isthmius and O. cariacou, which are used for consumption and sale of meat.In some cases, O. cariacou skin is used for making or manufacturing furniture or leather goods.On the other hand, H. isthmius (lesser capybara) is also considered a pet.

Discussion
The social information regarding the demographic aspects and the occupational activities of the sample of respondents of this research agrees with that determined regionally, with a high illiteracy rate, higher than the country's average 627,35,39 .
A difference in the disposition and the informative contribution of men with respect to women was evidenced.Males have greater access to resources as a function of the division of labor and social roles 6,35 .
It is important to highlight the role of age, economy and education of the participating individuals.The information was obtained mostly from older adults whose activities impart a broader life history in relation to ethnozoological interactions 22,24,25 .
The participation of Zenues inhabitants in the study area was of great interest, with an undeniable ancestral interaction between this indigenous community and nature in addition to the transmission of knowledge for use, which other studies have found for other ethnic groups such as the Embera-Katíos settled in the Department of Córdoba 1 ; nevertheless, the contribution of multiracial and African-Colombian participants indicated the existence of non-indigenous traditional knowledge on the use of fauna, as well as possible interactions with other popular cultures with knowledge transfer and feedback.
This study provided a clear ethnozoological assessment of the most common species of wild mammals.Previous research has highlighted the use of mammals as compared to all wildlife 6,[40][41][42] , being of great importance to communities, especially rural and indigenous communities, not only because of the direct value from use, but also because they are an integral part of their worldview 1,20 , as shown by the taboo and medicinal categories.
It has been documented that consumption, pet use and commerce stand out as the most conspicuous use categories in human-mammal relationships 6,17,20,22,25,27,29,39 ; it is noteworthy that, according to the obtained results, these processes of use are not independent.Some mammals can be traded for consumption, as pets or other uses: ornamentation with the skins for example.However, consumption, which is the most relevant use, is sometimes related to subsistence hunting without commercialization, maintaining an intrinsic relationship between exploitation and the socio-economy of human groups, where one part is aimed at consumption and another is used as exchange of goods 22,25 .
There are ethnozoological coincidences when comparing the results of this study with the Colombian Andes in Pereira, Risaralda, such as: artisanal, commerce, consumption, pet use, medicinal and ritual, distributed in 25 species, with 48% in common 17 ; in Génova, Quindío, the use of 12 species was reported in categories such as food, aphrodisiac, trade, pet, medicinal or ornament, as seen in the present study: D. punctata, D. novemcinctus, N. granatensis and P. concolor 16 ; in Alcalá, Valle del Cauca, it was recorded that S. brasiliensis, Dasyprocta sp., D. novemcinctus and D. marsupialis had the greatest use as meat, with skins, legs and nails extracted to produce crafts and medicinal ointments from species such as D marsupialis, Metachirus nudicaudatus and S. brasiliensis 18 .
For the Colombian Caribbean, significant coincidences were identified both in the species and the ethnozoological categories, with the main uses being consumption and sale of meat, medicine, pet ownership, conflicts between agricultural production and wildlife, as well as artisanal breeding, ornamental use and recognition of problematic or dangerous species 1,18,20,26,43 .Specifically for the study area, the present study determined a greater number of used species, as well as a greater number of categories of ethnozoological use 22,25,27 .
In general, the IIC per species was relatively low.S. floridanus was the most important cultural species since it is used as an amulet, pet, ornament, for trade, consumption and taxidermy.For its part, N. granatensis contributed the largest number of ethnozoological categories in this study, which were amulet, artisanal, commercial, consumption, pet, ornamental, problematic and taxidermy.It is recognized that both the rabbits of the genus Sylvilagus and squirrels of the genera Notosciurus or Sciurus are the more important and more recognized species for certain communities 6,17,18,20 , which supports the obtained results and may be associated with its relatively high abundance in the area according to the comments of the participants and personal observations.In addition, for species like these two, of high value and use, it seems logical to indicate an almost complete ethnozoological use with respect to its morphology and anatomy, which suggests that waste is avoided, maximizing utilization.
Although there are general patterns of utilization for the country 44 , at more specific scales, such as regional and local areas, variations can be found that depend on ecological factors, especially the abundance of the species harvested, the inhabited place and environment, and the social and cultural characteristics of the related human population 20,27,45 .

Conclusions
When comparing localities and regions, it is not always possible to expect the same species will have the same values of utilization and, sometimes, some may have a greater appreciation even though they are not in the highest scales of use in the country or region.However, it is noteworthy that, in the present study, the local knowledge was extensive.
It is important to note that it is necessary to link traditional knowledge and the perceptions of inhabitants as an important element within the perspectives of scientific studies since they are valuable tools for the development and execution of conservation plans, as well as allowing management and use consolidation.